1. Define case-control

Case: participants with prenatal exposure to GDM (Gestational Diabetes Mellitus), regardless of BMI status (n=666).

Control: participants without prenatal exposure to GDM, currently in healthy status (n=6149).

2. Define covariates

covariates: sex, age, race/ethnicity, pubertal stage, parental education, household income, site, estimated total intra cranial volume.

3. Develop z-score

1. Build the regression model using control data only.
2. For each ROI, calculate the difference between its actual value and the value predicted by the model.
3. Convert these differences to z-scores, using the mean and standard deviation from the control group.

Average thickness (n = 666)